What markers are used to identify hepatocellular carcinoma?

Serum alpha fetoprotein (AFP) is the most widely used tumor marker in detecting patients with hepatocellular carcinoma, and has been proven to have capability of prefiguring the prognosis.

What are the markers of hepatocellular damage?

Glutathione S-transferase alpha as marker for hepatocellular damage in pre-eclampsia and HELLP syndrome. Plasma glutathione S-transferase Alpha 1–1: a more sensitive marker for hepatocellular impairment than serum alanine aminotransferase in hypertensive disorders of pregnancy.

How is hepatocellular carcinoma detected?

Tests and procedures used to diagnose hepatocellular carcinoma include:

  1. Blood tests to measure liver function.
  2. Imaging tests, such as CT and MRI.
  3. Liver biopsy, in some cases, to remove a sample of liver tissue for laboratory testing.

What are markers in immunohistochemistry?

Immunohistochemical tumor markers are proteins that help doctors tell the difference between different types of cancer. Mesothelioma-related proteins such as calretinin, WT-1 and podoplanin help pathologists differentiate mesothelioma from other cancers such as lung cancer.

What level of AFP is diagnostic of HCC?

AFP >400–500 ng/ml is considered diagnostic for HCC, although fewer than half of patients may generate levels that high 39.

What are the different tumor markers?

There are many different types of tumour markers, including:

  • alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)
  • cancer antigen 125 (CA125)
  • cancer antigen 15-3 (CA15-3)
  • carbohydrate antigen 19-9 (CA19-9)
  • carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)
  • human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG or beta-hCG)
  • prostate-specific antigen (PSA)

What does elevated AST and Alk Phos mean?

Like ALT, AST is normally present in blood at low levels. An increase in AST levels may indicate liver damage, disease or muscle damage. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP). ALP is an enzyme found in the liver and bone and is important for breaking down proteins.

What are the biomarkers of the liver?

Traditional testing of liver function relies on serum biomarkers such as alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), and total bilirubin (TBIL).

Why is AFP elevated in hepatocellular carcinoma?

AFP levels may be elevated because of production by the tumor or by regenerating hepatocytes. Therefore, AFP levels are also frequently elevated in chronic active hepatitis C (levels of 200-300 ng/mL are not uncommon), but in those patients the levels tend to fluctuate and do not progressively increase.

Is HCC hypoechoic?

The US appearance of HCC varies; it may be hyperechoic or hypoechoic. A small hyperechoic HCC may be confused with hemangioma. Angiography may show increased vascularity of other hepatic tumors, including benign masses.

What is Ki67 a marker for?

The expression of Ki67 is strongly associated with tumor cell proliferation and growth, and is widely used in routine pathological investigation as a proliferation marker. The nuclear protein Ki67 (pKi67) is an established prognostic and predictive indicator for the assessment of biopsies from patients with cancer.